1. Rohillakhand, Doab, Oudh, Allahbad, Bihar, Rajasthan were the maximum affected areas. The mutiny mainly affected the Bengal army, the Madras and the Bombay regiments remained quiet, while the Punjabi and the Gurkha regiments actually helped to suppress the revolt. The maximum number of Indian sepoys were in Bengal regiment and if we look at overall numbers, ~ 50% of the Indian sepoys had revolted.
2. The £ presence in the Bengal army was also minimal. It also came from the high caste background and most of them were recruited from the peasant families of Oudh.

Causes of Failure

1. Reactionary attitude: This was the reason it always remained weak. People with personal grudge fought. Intelligentsia stayed away.
2. Lack of awakening: Thats why people in other parts of the country didn’t participate. Even in revolt areas, not everybody supported it. Until then the state system was people have nothing to do with politics or state except for paying taxes. People were tied with local loyalties.
3. Violent character: So it could never have been a mass phenomenon.
4. £ won as they had committed unlimited amount of resources to the cause while rebels had limited resources only.
5. Rebels showed a remarkable centripetal impulse to congregate at Delhi which prevented the rebellion from spreading as much as it could. The extremely localized nature of the rebellion helped £ in quelling it with ease.

Politics

1. Company vs £ crown.
2. Policy of territorial expansion abandoned.
3. Before 1858, the trend was centralization. By Charter Act of 1833, the legislative powers of the
4. provinces were taken away and vested in Bengal. After 1858, the trend was decentralization albeit a slow one.
5. £ policy towards the native states changed from subordinated isolation to subordinated union.

Military

1. Number of € soldiers increased, key posts reserved, caste and regional divisions in army, martial and non-martial races.

Economy

1. Policy of direct and open exploitation gave way to indirect and silent economic exploitation. Earlier one way free trade policy was followed; now finance capitalism was followed and amount of home charges was increased substantially.
2. Policy towards landlords changed from being anti to friends.

Social

1. The social policy was changed from liberal and progressive to regressive.
2. Racial discrimination increased further due to the fight.

Rise of Indian Nationalism

Factors Responsible

+ve Impact of £ Rule

1. Political and administrative unity. Uniform laws.
2. Modern press, railways, post.
3. Modern education and ideals.
4. Emergence of educated middle class.

-ve Impact of  £ Rule

1. Isolation of Indian villages was broken. What happened in one country began to affect others.
2. People saw their problems had same root.
3. The unpopular actions like Vernacular Press Act of 1778, Ilbert Bill controversy (the effeminate babu was not fit to preside over the trial of a manly £ not could he be expected to honor the dignity of white women as they did not respect women in their own household), Lex Loci Act (which gave christian converts the right to inherit their ancestral property), imposition of income tax in 1860 and raising its rate subsequently, Indian Council Act 1861, government proposal to cut back on funding of higher education in Bengal (and instead to route the funds into elementary education – mai baap politics), reducing the maximum age for civil services exam from 21 to 19 and refusing to conduct a simultaneous exam in india, Arms Act of 1878 (which introduced a licensing system but excluded the Eurasians and Europeans from the need of any license), Inland Emigration Act (which condemned the plantation workers to serfdom) worked to bring out the true nature of £ rule in India and also helped in rallying Indians.

Socio-Cultural Reform Movements

1. Highlighted the commonalities in Indian culture and worked to eliminate the divisive forces.
2. They were egalitarian, humanist, rationalist, modern.
3. Nationalist historians instilled sense of pride.

Project Revival

1. The reformers, by a re-interpretion, tried to show that the Indian culture was not inferior in any way to the £ culture and in fact on one count vis spiritualism even surpassed it. This sense of spiritual essence of the Indian society provided the ideological foundation of the modern Indian nationalism.

The modern revivalistic project created an identity that was inclusive as well as exclusive at the same time.

1. However this revivalistic project had its own drawbacks like uncritically accepting all practices of the past, bypassing the long Muslim rule, presenting the golden and the dark ages etc.

Reform vs Revival

1. The reform movements in which a number of moderates too were involved attempted to change Hindu institutions and social customs to bring it in conformity with the post enlightenment western ideas. Thus a National Social Conference was setup in 1887 as an adjunct body to congress. These movements were thus inspired by the western ideals as well as represented a response to the western critique of hindu civilization and the westernizing forces.
2. It was this second aspect of the reform movements which led to the revivalist project while the former aspect was made secondary to the second.

Nationalism and reformism seemed to be contradictory ideas.

1. To many Indians the relentless western critique of the hindu civilization and the growing pressure (with state patronage) of the westernizing forces meant a surrender to the colonial rule (as they viewed it as being sponsored  by the colonial rule). Hinduism became an identity, a symbol of sovereignty and since the reform movements were anchored in the western ideals and criticized hindu practices they were viewed with suspicion by a section of nationalists.
2. This led to the growth of anti-reformism based on a sense of pride on everything Hindu (and thus also sanctioned the theory of a glorious hindu past marked by a degeneration under muslims and threatened by £). And this revivalism thus acquired a strong political overtone (as it became a weapon to resist colonial ideology).

The educated middle class in the 19th century often found the domain of reason to be oppressive, as it implied the historical necessity of the ‘civilizing’ colonial rule.

1. Mention the role of reform movements, how their inspiration was drawn from £ ideals, and how their activities sought to change hinduism. But the same social reforms were also being sponsored by £ and thus the reformist movements came to be associated as westernizing force. Thus began the revivalist reaction.
2. This reaction sought to legitimize any and every defence of Hindu traditions. They began to invent precedents in ancient India for every modern scientific discovery of the west. The whole propaganda thus took an active form. This was accompanied by works in literature and other arts (although more sophisticated sometime as those of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee who wrote Anand Math, portrayed krishna as the modern politician and a nation builder, invented the icon of mother goddess for the nation and wrote Bande Mataram). Behramji Malabari in 1884 in Maharashtra wrote a ‘note’ on child marriage leading to enforced widowhood which led to a countrywide debate on the issue. Rukhma Bai a 22 year old widow was taken to Bombay high court by her husband because she refused to recognize his conjugal rights out of a child marriage. In this he was supported by the hindu revivalists even though reformers like Malabari tried to defend Rukhma Bai. The hindu revivalists also opposed the Age of Consent Act, 1891 for it was being imposed by a colonial government while incidentally they had no hesitation in taking resource to the same colonial government to impose their viewpoint in the Rukhma Bai case.
3. In these circumstances (growing revivalist tendencies) Ramkrishna Paramhansa and Vivekananda captured the imagination of the nationalist masses.

While Brahmo Samaj’s appeal was to intellect, that of Ramkrishna was to the mind and emotions.

1. Unlike the brahmo samajists, he was a man who was a saint and was completely untouched by any westernizing influence. He offered simplistic interpretations of Hinduism, often based in the ancient Indian practice of bhakti which had the same effect of conforming to some of the reformist ideals and doing so without succumbing to any of the westernizing forces. Thus casteism should not be followed because in conformance with the ancient Indian practice of bhakti all are children of god and he will not make any such distinction among his bhaktas and not because such a thing was inhumane as per the post enlightenment thinking of the west. Thus the humanism ideal of enlightenment was incorporated by Ramkrishna as ‘the best way to serve god is to serve his poor children’.
2. His teachings also contained an open rejection of the values imposed by the western education and the westernized life and jobs Thus he became immensely popular with the middle class western educated bengalees as his teachings conformed with their ideals and yet were based on a completely indigenous interpretation which in no way undermined the prestige of their culture.

To describe Ramkrishna as a revivalist is to ignore the ‘universalistic’ aspects of his teachings.

1. He was not exactly a revivalist for he did include a form of assimilation of religious ideas. He thus argued that there are various ways to achieve god but one must stick to his own path. He argued that assimilation was the essence of Hinduism. He advocated social service and didn’t remain confined to the elites and in fact criticized the other social movements for being too elitist.

Hindu revivalist project selectively retained the teachings of Vivekananda and Ramkrishna.

1. His evocation of Hindu glory mixed with patriotism and restoration of Hindu masculinity had a tremendous influence on the popular mind. While this aspect of his teachings was highlighted, his call to change some of the evil hindu practices was ignored. His philanthropic activities were never emulated and his criticism of brahmanical and gender oppression was scarcely ever taken seriously.

The term revivalism itself remained problematic as it did not mean resurrecting an old forgotten past, but reconstituting the past in the service of the present.

1. Between 1892 and 1909, about 20% of the delegates attending congress sessions were landlords, 40% were lawyers and 15% were traders. Among the lawyers and traders as well many were related to landlord families or had landed interests. The congress could therefore never take a coherent logical stand on peasant question. They demanded extension of PS in the interest of zamindars, opposed a survey on measuring the extent of land holdings and their values in 1893-94 which could have protected the peasants from the manipulations of the zamindars, its leaders opposed the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885.
2. The representation of the pro commercial classes also prevented congress from addressing the worker question. Thus they opposed the Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891, Mining Bill and other labor reforms. It was the pro landlord and pro bourgeoisie policies of the congress that allowed the colonial government to project itself as the real protector of the poor.
3. Further they were high caste hindu leaders and couldn’t overcome their social conservatism while the £ government on the recommendation of the Indian Education Commission,1882 even set aside special funds for the education of the backward classes.  It were the colonial education, christian missionary philanthropy and their own initiative which inspired their awakening and guided it into an anti-brahman movement and not anti-£ (it may be noted that even now the nationalists did nothing to enlist their support and it had to wait until the arrival of the mahatma). They looked at the emerging nationalist movement as a conspiracy to establish Brahmanic hegemony over the new institutions and viewed the colonial government as their patron and liberator. By trying to portray Hinduism as a religion of a book, they also tended to ignore the numerous folk cultures and other cultures.
4. Moreover they alienated the Muslims in their project revival and in their failure to criticize the cow riots. After the 1891 Nagpur session of congress, the Gaurakshini samiti held its meeting within the congress pavilion and was attended by a large number of congress leaders and thus only increasing muslim misgivings. Then they also opposed the Age of Consent Act, 1891. In their agitation also they never tried to enlist the support of the masses.

Thus the nationalism, which grew in strength in the late 19th century, was beset with contradictions from the very beginning.Politics of Associations

1. Earlier Raja RM Roy had carried out a modest © agitation for such demands as separation of powers, trial by jury, indianization of services and freedom of press. 1st political body to be found was Bengal Bhasa Prakashika Sabha in 1836. In 1838 Zamindar Association was formed which was the first example of a constitutional lobbying group. In 1841 Desh-hitashini sabha was founded which promoted the ideas of Young Bengal movement. Gopal Harideshmukh was first to plead swadesi, Bhaskar Pandurang Tarkhadkar was first to write militant criticism of colonial rule.
2. A series of associations had been founded. But these were too narrow in their thought and objectives and had outlived their utility. For example, the £ Indian Association of Bengal had increasingly associated itself with zamindars. Unlike its predecessor Landholders’ Society which had many non official £-Indians in it, the £ Indian Association had Indian members only. It was created on the eve of the renewal of the charter of the company to send petitions to the £ parliament to express the demands of the Indian subjects. It initially tried to coordinate the efforts of the other presidencies as well but failed (mainly ego clashes). They demanded greater participation in the administration, more efficient administration, protested against legislations unresponsive to the feelings of the people, high taxation, salt and opium monopolies and neglect of education and public works. Obviously £ parliament paid no heed.
3. On the failure of the £ Indian Association to create a national level representation, the Bombay Association (D Nairoji, Fardoonji) and Madras Native Association came up but they too had become reactionary. Only the Poona Sarvjanik Sabha continued as before. But they had created a basic level of awakening in the country. So need was there for a more radical and national level organization.
4. Thus the Indian Association was founded in 1876 by SN Bannerjea and Anand Mohan Bose which was free from the landed plutocracy and represented the middle class. IN the same year the Bombay Association was given a new life when Dadabhai Nairoji and Ferdunji joined it but the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha remained the main organization. In 1884 Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded by S Iyer, PA Charlu and C Raghavchari. In 1885 Bombay Presidency Association was found by PS Mehta, B Tyabji. These new associations demanded separation of power, indianization of legislative council (50% elected representation from local bodies, chambers of commerce, universities etc.) and bureaucracy, 2 Indian members in the GG’s executive council, reduction of military expenditure and home charges, extension of PS to other parts of India (in the support of zamindar group). Where they differed from the old politics (zamindar associations) was that they were demanding a share in running their own country.

The older ways survived in various forms.

1. Despite the founding of the new associations which were led by middle class intellectuals, the older lobby of landlords survived in the form of dals which were dominated by absentee landlords. They presided over an informal but effective social network of the landed gentry across Bengal and took position in support of or in opposition to many public issues depending upon their interests. In united provinces too the older forces were channeled by the caste and communal associations.
2. Moreover the new middle class too had land connections of its own it was only in Bombay that an industrialist class could come up. This is revealed in their continuous raising of zamindari interests and opposition to the Bengal Tenancy Bill, 1885.

Congress

Safety Valve Hypothesis

1. The theory was put forward by Lala Lajpat Rai in 1916. Before him WC Bonnerjee had put forward a similar view that ‘Congress was the brainchild of Dufferin’. He also cited Hume’s biography by William Wedderburn written in 1913.
2. According to this, in 1878, Hume came across 30k secret reports while in Shimla. He also had a large number of mysterious godmen who used to keep him informed.
3. But Lala was an extremist and he was biased against congress. Hume was i revenue department. How can he access files meant for home department? +

True Character

1. A series of associations had been founded. But these were too narrow in their thought and objectives and had outlived their utility. For example, the £ Indian Association of Bengal had increasingly associated itself with zamindars. Similarly the Bombay Association and Madras Native Association had become reactionary. Only the Poona Sarvjanik Sabha continued as before. But they had created a basic level of awakening in the country. So need was there for a more radical and national level organization.
2. The press was growing and spreading nationalist ideas and integrating people all over the nation.
3. A series of campaigning against unpopular acts of government had already given experience and confidence to Indian leaders. Vernacular press act, arms act, afghan war, land revenue, ilbert bill.
4. The new leaders and press were already pressing for the cause of a national level political association.

1. Anti-Colonial Rule: The early demands were mild – like reduction of LR, reduction in war expenses, more education, health, Indians in civil services etc. But these were demands which ran contrary to the very nature of a colonial rule and couldn’t have been fulfilled.
2. Nation Building: This process had just started in India, so they had to continue it. This had to be done by emphasizing common nature of problems, promoting unity across regions, religions, mobilizing public opinion and raising issues of national importance.
3. Create a common political platform: Where workers from different parts of India could gather and conduct their activities to educate and mobilize people all over India. To give a proper organizational structure and leaders for them to work around.
4. Guiding the INM on modern path: Changing concepts, bringing modern ideas to Indian public, to draw them into politics. New politics meant involvement of people, so to mobilize public opinion.
5. Expose the true nature of £ rule: This would enable people to focus and channelize their opinions. They believed Indian poverty is not God sent but man made due to actions of £. Economic development means development of modern industries. The economic development in India should happen with Indian capital only and not foreign capital. They disagreed that £ rule was good for India because it had established law and order. They said the law and order only means that £ could bleed India dry with minimal resistance. Development of railways etc. served the same purpose. The policy of free trade was ruining Indian industry.

Factors Responsible

1. Rise of £ as political power – diwani and nizamat rights.
2. Colonial nature of £ rule.
3. Return of £ officials to home.

Instruments

1. Indian Investments: The £ used Indian revenues to buy Indian products and export to £. So India got nothing for the exports.
2. Home Charges: Expenses of the India office in London including salaries, pensions (expenses of £ company’s London establishment till 1858 and then by the office of SoS for India in London); dividends / charges paid by the £ company; interest on loans taken by GoI (earlier company); pensions. The amount of home charges was 10% of total revenues of GoI in 1858, 24% in 1900, 40% in 1921.
3. Wars fought by £ outside India: They had no relation to India but India had to pay for it.
4. Excessive employment of £: They came expensive and took away all wealth to £.
5. € Capital: The profits went back as dividends / interest.
6. Coercive Practices: Used to coerce Indians into labor and buy low, sell high.

Critique of DoW Theory (Curzon et al)

1. They said there was an inflow of bullion into India. But bullion as a commodity can be purchased.
2. They said £ arranged loans for India @ concessional rates. But did India ask for it?
3. Railways brought benefit to India. But it was colonial in character.

Nature & Character

1. They were young and more radical compared to the previous generation who were too narrow minded.
2. They were liberals believing in constitutional means and processes. They protested against the colonial element in the £ rule. They had full faith in £ sense of justice. They were totally non-violent. And they considered © as inviolable and hence the faith in © methods.
3. They were democratic in thought and even structured INC on democratic lines. They were assimilatory, secular, egalitarian and tolerant. Yet they were not always forthright enough to rise above their sectarian interests despite claiming to do so.
4. Their social outlook was also progressive. They represented the modern enlightened chain of thought in India. They supported the Age of Consent Act of 1892.
5. They were the western educated intelligentsia of India. They were journalists. They belonged to upper middle class and were elitist. They had no faith in efficacy of masses. Their social support base was urban, yet their issues and activities were pan-Indian in character and were sympathetic towards peasants.
6. They were primarily guided by utilitarian theories, the administration should be efficient, the government should be guided by expediency and not by any traditionalism or moral laws.

The moderates had wanted the Indian nation to develop along a modernistic course; but modernism being a western concept, this meant an advocacy of the continuation of the colonial rule.

1. They wanted abolition of the India Council which prevented the SoS from initiating liberal policies in India. They also wanted to broaden the Indian participation in the central and the provincial legislative councils by having 50% members elected not by the general public, but by local bodies, chambers of commerce, universities etc. They wanted 2 Indian members in the GG’s executive council and 1 such member in each of the provincial council.
2. The budget should be referred to the legislature which should have the right to discuss it, amend it and vote on it. They also wanted the right to appeal directly to the £ parliament against the GoI.

Limitations of Moderates

1. Between 1892 and 1909, about 20% of the delegates attending congress sessions were landlords, 40% were lawyers and 15% were traders. Among the lawyers and traders as well many were related to landlord families or had landed interests. The congress could therefore never take a coherent logical stand on peasant question. They demanded extension of PS in the interest of zamindars, opposed a survey on measuring the extent of land holdings and their values in 1893-94 which could have protected the peasants from the manipulations of the zamindars, its leaders opposed the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885.
2. The representation of the pro commercial classes also prevented congress from addressing the worker question. Thus they opposed the Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891, Mining Bill and other labor reforms. It was the pro landlord and pro bourgeoisie policies of the congress that allowed the colonial government to project itself as the real protector of the poor.
3. Between 1892 and 1909, ~90% of the delegates attending congress sessions were hindus and only 6.5% were muslims. Even in Hindus ~40% were brahmans and rest were upper caste hindus. This led to social orthodoxy and lack of clear communal policies (even though in 1888 congress passed a rule that no decision will be taken which was opposed by an overwhelming majority of any community and in 1889 in its resolution demanding reforms in legislature it recommended proportional reservations for minorities). Muslim participation declined even further after the 1883 communal riots and congress’ silence on it. After the 1891 Nagpur session of congress, the Gaurakshini samiti held its meeting within the congress pavilion and was attended by a large number of congress leaders and thus only increasing muslim misgivings. And no major initiative was launched by the congress to bring the muslim in its fold.

Successes of Moderates

1. Political reforms were taking place and Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909 were passed.
2. Their economic critique and nation building activities + founding fathers of modern India in many ways.
3. The Public Service Commission was setup in 1886. They succeeded in getting a resolution introduced in £ parliament on holding civil services examination in India as well.
4. A Welby Commission was setup to look into the ways of better management of Indian resources.

Nature & Character

1. Congress under the moderate leadership was being governed by an undemocratic ©. Despite repeated attempts by Tilak no reforms were carried out. The congress was also financially broke as the capitalists didn’t contribute and the patronage of a few landed elements was never sufficient. The social reformism of the moderates also went against popular orthodoxy. Then came Curzon and he passed a string of unpopular acts including the Calcutta Municipal (Amendment) Act, 1899 (which sought to reduce the number of the elected representatives in it), the Indian Universities Act, 1904 (which placed Calcutta university under government control) and the Indian Official Secrets (Amendment) Act, 1904 (which placed further restrictions on press). His unpopular Calcutta university convocation address too stoked discontent.
2. They were more radical than moderates in their demands and means. They had no faith in constitutional processes and resorted to agitations on streets, public speeches, fiery press articles, traditional festivals, boycotts etc. Basically they sought to broaden the support base of the INM.
3. They were non-violent but had sympathies with violent actors against £. They themselves never asked for violence neither openly supported it.
4. They demanded not constitutional reforms but home rule. They had no faith in £ sense of justice.
5. Though they were generally progressive and secular in outlook, they often took recourse to religion and reactionary elements to garner support. Their source of inspiration was past glory of Indian culture. They opposed the Age of Consent Act, 1891.
6. Their support base was still urban, though it widened to include lower middle class as well. At its height, it also entered villages to a limited extent.

Partition of Bengal

Partition Plan

1. East Bengal would have 18 mm Muslims & 12 mm Hindus. INC would oppose it thus Muslims will feel that INC doesn’t want to give them a Muslim majority province. W Bengal will have 17 mm Bengalis and 37 mm non-Bengalis. Also any measure to reduce the importance of Calcutta would weaken the INM and Congress.
2. Had the partition been purely on administrative grounds then the government would have accepted the alternative proposals offered by a number of civil servants suggesting more logical partition plans based on linguistic division rather than religious division of the population. But Curzon rejected all these proposals on political ground that linguistic unity would further consolidate the position of the Bengalee politicians.

Response (1903-early 1905)

1. Sarkar (1973) has identified 4 major trends in Swadesi politics which ran more or less simultaneously throughout – the moderate trend, the constructive swadesi, the political extremism and the revolutionary terrorism. Initially the moderates held sway. They wrote in press, speeches, public meetings assuming that the £ would be amenable to arguments. Some of the largest public meetings were held in this period. They were trying to build public opinion against the partition. They also tried to build opinion in £ and in £ parliament against the plan. But when they failed to do so the movement widened into a call for the boycott of £ goods – led by the moderate SN Banerjee himself. But despite the wider call, the strategy of the moderates remained the same – they only sought to pressurize the £ parliament to secure an annulment of the partition and couldn’t conceptualize of boycott as a method for the development of national economy and resistance.
2. As a reaction to the boycott, a new trend developed with the emphasis on self reliance and many constructive projects to develop swadesi education and businesses were launched. The difference from the political extremist version of swadesi and this constructive swadesi was that the emphasis was on non political programmes and religious revivalism. Atmasakti became the creed of Bengal. Arbitration courts were created and the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti settled over 500 cases.
3. But as it developed the political extremists began to argue that without political freedom no atmasakti or self reliance was possible. And thus the movement took a new turn and became wider than just Bengali sub nationalism. Now the goal changed from annulment of the partition to swaraj.

In 1911 the Curzonian aim of weakening the Bengali politicians was achieved in a different way and now with less resistance.

1. Also refer to the transfer of capital out of Calcutta to Delhi.

1. Although the tools were similar like boycott of £ goods and institutions, development of their indigenous alternatives, violation of unjust laws and agitation against £ excesses yet there were important differences.
2. Swadesi also allowed for violent agitation in the face of £ excesses while Gandhi emphasized completely on non violence.
3. Hindu religious revivalism was the main feature of swadesi while Gandhi had a universal assimilatory philosophy. He too used religious idioms and songs but his was not a revivalist tendency but referring to religious morality. His goal was a moral goal and he never defined swaraj.
4. Swadesi failed in developing mass support as its leaders were not particularly keen to include lower peasantry and lower castes in their fold. They were dominated by high caste hindus and sometimes used coercive practices and social boycott etc. to enlist their support. Swadesi thus failed to recognize and accommodate the social aspirations of lower classes. It was primarily because of this failure of mass mobilization that the boycott movement failed to affect £ imports into India.
5. Gandhi’s swadesi was firmly based on Indian ideology whereas the earlier swadesi was on borrowed ideology.

Tools

1. It began when it became obvious that moderate methods had failed and government will not stop @ them. Spontaneous meetings and processions took place.
2. Mourning day was observed and rakhis tied. Picketing, strikes, boycotts, women, students, Indian enterprises. It was pan-India and took place in other parts of India as well. Songs, festivals.
3. Corps of volunteers were setup to spread the message in villages as well.

Impact

(a) Social

1. Education: National Council of Education was setup comprising of leading nationalists. Vernacular languages were promoted. Indian schools and colleges were setup to accommodate expelled students.
2. Social Base: Usual suspects + class of zamindars. Instilled sense of self-sacrifice. Peasantry, changed concept of modern politics!
3. It led to increased participation of workers in mainstream INM as well. For the first time, INM began to turn pro-worker. Swadesi led to politicization of workers, their demands were no longer immediate economic ones but now linked to national cause.

(b) Political

1. Emerging Trends: Transition to Gandhian methods could be seen in fragments. Mass involvement, constructive work in villages, women, student, peaceful picketing, swadesi, passive resistance.

(c) Cultural

1. Patriotic songs were composed which inspire till date. Folk music was influenced.
2. Vernacular languages got a boost.
3. Abanindranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose sought to revive Indian style of painting and end victorian domination.

1. The Bengali moderates cherished their connection with the more conservative Bombay group but the local political compulsions in Bengal (swadesi was most active there and the pressure of extremists was hardest there too) imposed upon them a more radical course. The Bombay group, led by Mehta and Gokhle, couldn’t appreciate their radical tendencies at all.
2. Among the non Bengali extremists, Lala and Tilak was clearly in favor of restraint and wanted reconciliation between extremists and moderates. But other extremists were clearly against any compromise and wanted to press further on.
3. The even bigger issue was how far to carry the radical programme @ Congress. INC embraced swadesi in 1905 and swaraj in 1906 under the pressure of the extremists who got support from Bengali moderates despite the machinations of Mehta. Now differences emerged over whether to extend boycott to other things apart from £ goods as well and whether to extend it to other parts of India as well. Mehta was against the retention of the 4 Calcutta resolutions (on swaraj, swadesi, boycott and national education).

Home Rule Movement

Methods Used

1. Organization, associations, committee. Several committees of dedicated workers were formed – 6 by Tilak and 200 by AB.
2. Press was used. They published journals, used newspapers, distributed pamphlets in which they clearly articulated their demands.
3. They used vernacular languages in their writings, speeches and promoted political education and discussion.
4. Gradually its extremist tendencies were growing. After the arrest of HRM activists including AB, Tilak began to talk of a passive resistance or civil disobedience movement. He sent out a proposal in this regard to all provincial congress committees who wanted more time to launch it.

Significance

1. Swaraj no longer seditious, filled political vacuum etc.
2. Home rule leagues had good membership in areas like Gujarat, Sind, UP, Bihar which had hitherto not participated to any appreciable extent in the mainstream INM.
3. Created a dedicated cadre for the nationalist cause. To play an important role in Rowlatt Satyagraha and peasants’ movements.

Revolutionary Extremism

Changing Character of REM

1. Growing Organization: In the beginning they were little organized, lacked clear understanding of the £ rule in India. They were driven more by emotions and self sacrifice than by real world considerations. In 1920s it turned more organized and pan-India. In 1940s, INA was formed which was a highly organized effort.
2. Changing Methods: In the beginning, they followed the model of individual bravery and didn’t try to get any mass support. The Gadhar Party made attempt to involve the army into it. By the time of Bhagat Singh, need was felt to involve the masses into the struggle and individual acts merely became a means and not an end in themselves. INA was a proper organized army.
3. Growing Socialistic Influence: The impact of socialistic ideals gradually grew. Hindustan Republican Association and HSRA were openly socialist in their leanings. INA was completely socialistic.
4. Growing Secularism: The early REM took oath in the name of religion and were confined to Hindus. But the groups in 1920s abandoned Hindu oaths and no longer excluded Muslims.

Impact of REM

1. On Princely States: They helped a lot in spreading the nationalist ideas in princely states as they used to hide in these states after committing their acts.
2. They were egalitarian and secular in character.

Beginning Phase (1900s till 1920s)

Factors Responsible

1. Economic hardships faced by people during closing years of 19th century. There were massive famines repeatedly.
2. Hindu revivalism – Vivekananda’s emphasis on masculinity, akharas.
3. Failure of mainstream movement: The Swadesi and Boycott movements had aroused the urban youth. The speeches of extremist leaders and slogan of swaraj had fired their imagination. But the extremists failed to provide them any guidance from thereon and the youth were forced to adopt a path of violence.
4. International factors like defeat of Italy at the hands of Ethiopia, Japan’s victory over Russia and methods of Irish revolutionaries and Russian nihilists encouraged them.

Nature & Character

1. They tried to follow the model of Irish militants and Russian nihilists instead of trying to organize a mass revolt or an army mutiny. Their model was based upon leading by action.
2. They lacked proper understanding of the strength and character of £ rule.
3. They got active support of press and even had some dedicated newspapers. Important ones were Jugantar and Abhinav Bharat.
4. They organized themselves into secret societies. Important ones were Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar.
5. They were also spread outside India.
6. They were Hindu biased as they took religious oaths and excluded Muslims.

Early Acts

1. In 1877, Basudeo Balwant Phadke gathered around him a small band of backward classes and engaged them into dacoities to collect money for his plans of an armed revolt against £.
2. In 1902 4 groups were formed. 1st one was Midnapur Society, 2nd was an akhara by Sarala Ghosal in Calcutta, 3rd was Atmonnoti Samiti in Calcutta & 4th was Anushilan Samiti by Satish Chandra Basu in Calcutta.
3. The 1st swadesi dacoity to collect funds was organized by Anushilan @ Rangpur (Barindra Kumar Ghose, Prafulla Chaki, Hemchandra Qanungo). A bomb making factory was started in Maniktala @ Calcutta. In 1907, an unsuccessful attempt was made on the life of Lieutenant Governor of Bengal.
4. In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb in a carriage believed to be carrying an unpopular judge of Muzaffarpur.
5. In 1912, Rash Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal made an attempt on life of Viceroy Lord Hardinge.
6. Jatin Mukerjee in Bengal tried to smuggle arms from Germany during WW1 but was suppressed ruthlessly in a battle with £ police @ Balasore in Odisha.

Second Phase (1920s & 30s)

1. They attacked the Writers’ Building in Calcutta during the CDM and became heroes.

1. In 1929 he founded the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha to mobilize the peasants against zamindar attacks on their occupancy rights. Initially it was meant to promote class harmony but by 1935 it increasingly adopted abolition of zamindari as its main programme.

Kisan Sabha Movement in AP – NG Ranga

1. He organized a number of peasant marches in 1930s and also demanded abolition of zamindari. In 1935 he along with Namboodripad tried to take the movement to other linguistic areas of Madras presidency as well and formed the S Indian Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labor. Next they made efforts for the establishment of an all India body.

Kisan Sabha Movement in Odisha

1. This was led by CSP activists and they formed Utkal Kisan Sangha in 1935 and organized some militant peasant movements along the demand of zamindari abolition.

All India Kisan Sabha (1936)

1. It was founded at the Lucknow session of the congress ion April 1936 with Sahajanand Saraswati as its first president. It brought out a Kisan manifesto which adopted radical demands like zamindari abolition, graduated LR on agricultural income, grant of occupancy rights to all tenants and scaling down of interest rates and debts.
2. As a result of this body, Congress in its Faizpur session in December 1936 adopted the Agrarian Programme.

1. While the WW1 brought immense profitability to the industrialists, the merchants (who were mainly importers) suffered due to currency fluctuation and stoppage of imports. The rupee devaluation by 30% threatened to saddle them with losses.
2. The 1919 reforms, based on its policy of interest representation, also promised to give political representation to the industrialist class. Furthermore the £ promised a policy of protection from imports. This drew the industrialists closer to the £ and their participation in the NCM was little though Birla and Bajaj became close associates of Gandhi. But Tata and Purshottamdas Thakurdas formed an anti NCM Society. On the other hand, merchants were alienated by the £ and also Gandhi’s moral religious values, his trusteeship theory etc. all appealed to them and they were active participants in NCM.
3. Post NCM the worsening economic conditions brought the industrialists as well closer to congress and they actively participated with the swarajists. Moreover when due to opposition from the Lancashire lobby the government matched a customs duty hike with a hike in excise duty they realized that aligning with the government only was futile. There was a rising threat of communism as well and they needed to come close to congress in order to prevent its communist takeover!

Nature & Character of Capitalists’ Policy

Ans 6 (a)

• Singh Sabha

– In the late 19th century.

– Aim: revival of Sikh Guru’s teachings, Campaign to increase literacy and promotion

of Gurumukhi script.

– Reaction to the proselytizing activation of Christian Missionaries.

Ans 6 (b)

• Daman-i-koh

– Forested area of Rajmahal hills

– Present Sahebganj (Jharkhand)

– Santhal revolt.

Ans (c)

• Saliadaran Ayyapan

– Follower of Sri Narayan Guru.

– Social reformer.

– Respected for his selfless social work.